Financial Reporting Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Financial Reporting - Essay Example In that sense, â€Å"financial accounting reflects, mirrors, represents, or measures this pre-existent economic reality† (Hines 1991:316). On the other hand, the Conceptual Framework is criticised â€Å"for not fulfilling its functional objectives, principally that of providing a basis for guiding standard-setting and resolving accounting controversies† (Hines, 1991:313). The purpose of the essay is to provide a critical overview of the conceptual framework and to analyze why it is criticized for not fulfilling its functional objectives as discussed above. This paper is organized as follows. The remainder of this paper is structured in the following way: Section 2 provides a general overview of the Conceptual Framework and its development; Section 3 provides a critical discussion of the concepts identified in previous section; Section 4 is concluding part of the essay. The Conceptual Framework is a tool which â€Å"sets out the concepts that underlie the preparation and presentation of financial statements† (Ifrs.com, 2014, n.p.). This tool is used by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) for developing and updating/revising International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRSs) (Ifrs.com, 2014, n.p.). The main objective of the Conceptual Framework is to help users in developing, revising, interpreting and understanding the IFRSs (Hoogervorst, Clark & Knubley, 2014). The Conceptual framework was initially established in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s in the USA (Pike & Chui, 2012). CF served as a foundation for accounting standards with identification of key principles and a set of qualitative characteristics (Pike & Chui, 2012). The first product produced by the CF project was the concepts statement on the objectives of financial reporting (Solomons, 1986). CF was aimed to be a set of prescriptive principles that would guide board members in standards’ setting and practitioners in problem solving processes (Hines,

Diversification Strategy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Diversification Strategy - Assignment Example With the help of ski patrol, ski guides, and ski teams from Dartmouth University, the school properly utilizes the almost ideal slopes of Ragged Mountains. I was also not surprised to learn that SNHU hosts and caters events through www.uniquevenues.com because of the campus’ convenient location on the border between Manchester and Hooksett (SNHU, n.d.). 3M offers products that balance the work and personal lives of the American public. For instance, 3M Command Strips are all-purpose hangers that users can use in bathrooms for towels, in the bedroom for jewelry, belts, photos, and accessories (3M, 2015). This makes 3M’s command strips ideal for users who rent houses since property owners do not allow them to drill into walls or shelves. However, in February 2014, products made by 3M and aimed at industrial and consumers were recorded to be underperforming (Govindarajan and Srinivas, 2013). One 3M business is Display and Graphics, particularly its Architectural Solutions in the United States. 3M’s diversification approaches in its Architectural Solutions form groundbreaking assets for individual and corporate clients. These approaches form the structure, methods, and tradition that allow clients to think and carry out tasks in different ways in an effort to accomplish exceptional success (Govindarajan and Srinivas,

Space Tourism: A Look In The Past And Future

Space Tourism: A Look In The Past And Future Space tourism is tourism in which participants pay for flights into space. Space Tourism is the term thats come to be used to mean ordinary members of the public buying tickets to travel to space and back. Many people find this idea futuristic. But over the past few years a growing volume of professional work has been done on the subject, and its now clear that setting up commercial space tourism services is a realistic target for business today. Its a distinct category of space travel which also includes travel in space for work purposes to date, mainly by government staff. In recent years it has been observed that, although governmental space agencies are not interested in space tourism, it is an objective of development of space activities and will help considerably in funding the space operations or activity. A report published by NASA General Public Space Travel and Tourism in March 1998, endorses the idea of space tourism; pointed out that it is going to start sub-orbital flights; that it promises to be a much wider market that space launch. Although space tourism had come up in a number of science fiction stories, it is an astonishing fact that in almost none of them, tourism is portrayed as more than a small-scale activity greatly overshadowed by government space missions military operations, scientific research, defence, etc. This is a good example of how the Cold War pattern of space activities has paralyzed the publics imagination. That is, government organizations carrying out monopoly missions in space ostensibly for the benefit of the taxpayer and created a fixed image of what are space activities, which has dominated the imaginations of scientists and engineers, politicians, the media, and the general public for several decades. The price for a flight to the International Space Station is US$ 20-35 million. The space tourists or the spaceflight participants as called by few, usually sign contracts with third parties to conduct particular research while in orbit. This helps to minimize the expenses. Infrastructure is being developed for a suborbital space tourism industry through the construction of spaceports in various parts of the world, including California, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Florida, Virginia, Alaska, Wisconsin and Esrange in Sweden as well as the United Arab Emirates. Some prefer to use the term personal spaceflight as in the case of the Personal Spaceflight Federation. A number of startup companies have sprung up in recent years, hoping to create a space tourism industry. For a list of such companies, and the spacecraft they are currently building, see list of space tourism companies. Russia halted orbital space tourism since 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would be sold to paying spaceflight participants. However it is planned to resume in 2012, when the number of single-use three-man Soyuz launches rises to five flights in a year. Dispute over the terminology of space tourists Dennis Tito, Mark Shuttleworth, Gregory Olsen, Anousheh Ansari and Richard Garriott have conveyed their desire to be called something other than space tourist. The reason accorded was that they carried out scientific experiments as part of their journey. Garriott has expressed his opinion to be called as private cosmonaut or private astronaut. Tito prefers to be known as an independent researcher and there are many terminologies proposed by others as well. Charles Simonyi is the only one who seems to have no issues about calling it space tourism. However, it is important to note here that even the Outer Space Treaty or the other relevant conventions do not provide with an appropriate definition. NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency have agreed to use the term spaceflight participant to distinguish space travelers from astronauts on missions coordinated by the two agencies. There is a notion that space tourism has a potential of being burgeoning industry that could further the development and settlement of space and so a need to settle the objections on terminology. Growth of an Early Dream: Harnessing Potential The economic promise of space tourism has been discussed in some detail in earlier papers. Its potential to grow into a large-scale airline-like business was described in 1986  [1]  . Based on a wide range of related research that has been published in the intervening 20 years, the potentially important economic benefits were described with detailed supporting evidence in 2006  [2]  . The major points are summarized briefly here. The 2001 orbital flight by Dennis Tito on a Soyuz rocket demonstrated the remarkable fact that, despite having spent the equivalent of $1 trillion since the same type of rocket launched the first satellite in 1957, the government space agencies of the OECD have not reduced the cost of getting to space at all in half a century. Soyuz remains the cheapest and safest means of space travel. The 2004 flights of SpaceShipOne further demonstrated that sub-orbital flights could be made at a cost of about 1% of the expendable rockets used by space agencies, and that commercial passenger services could in principle have started in the early 1970s, if not earlier. From the economic point of view this would have been very desirable, creating new industries and employment. Consequently it is clear that governments space policies have been responsible for a delay of 40 years so far in exploiting space travel economically. Studies by Asford and Collins  [3]  , the Japanese Rocket Society ( JRS)  [4]  , the Space Transportation Association (STA) and NASA  [5]  , Ashford  [6]  , Bekey  [7]   Futron (for NASA)  [8]  and others have increasingly showed that space travel could grow into a large new business activity; that it could reduce the cost of traveling to orbit by 99% or more; and that this could lead on to other valuable activities such as CO2-free energy supply from space  [9]  . Reducing launch costs sharply would also enable large-scale economic development in space, contributing greatly to the resolution of global environmental problems, and removing the justification for resource wars by making the limitless resources of space economically accessible. It could also have important cultural benefits  [10]  . It is also important to recognize that, from an economic or business point of view, the space industry is today very unhealthy. Employment in rocket engineering in the USA fell from more than 28,000 in 1999 to less than 5,000 in 2002  [11]  , while European space industry employment fell by 20% from 1995 to 2005  [12]  . The bottom line is that, like any other industry, unless the space industry starts to supply services that can grow to be sufficiently popular with sufficiently large numbers of the general public to reach substantial economic scale, it cannot become a major commercial activity, and will continue to impose a heavy burden on taxpayers. Accruing Benefits: Advantages Research benefits For one it is an important to discuss as to why so much emphasis is given on space tourism and the purpose of space tourism. Space development, exploration as well as cultural renewal is the prospect of space tourism. The Space agencies have sufficient justification to contribute greatly to the development of space tourism, since it is their existing legal responsibility or the duty to encourage the commercial use of space. Such agencies could contribute in different ways which are closely related to their existing fields of work, which include appropriate research, technology development, education, and legal activities. The space agencies could possibly contribute through their research to short-term orbital stays by average people, treatment of minor-ailments in gravity and so on.  [13]   Till date no government space agency has provided more than minimal support for space tourism-related research, the resistance within space agencies is still far stronger than those favoring such efforts. This reluctance of government space agencies has adversely affected the budgets allocated to such activities which include space tourism. However, this situation is fast changing due to two ongoing trends. First is the worsening economic situation which has led to the increasing need for development of new industries to reduce world-wide unemployment. Thus there is a lot of economic potential in such commercial activities which should be beneficially utilized.  [14]   And secondly the participation of private players in space tourism activities is educating the public about such economically very valuable new space activities that could be developed without burdening space agencies budgets. Economic benefits Under democracy and capitalism, if there is substantial demand for a particular service which is not threatening to some sections of society, people and agencies freely supply it. However, the development of commercial space activities like space tourism services will provide great economic and social benefits for humanity than any business opportunity because of its potential to grow as large as aviation and even more.  [15]   It has been reported that many of those involved in government-funded space activities and also politicians view space tourism as a waste of money and resources or not worth investing in because the return on investment may be very low.  [16]  Tragically, space agencies themselves rather than the general public decide what technology is developed. As a result space activities remain a burden on taxpayers instead of a source of profit for the economy and the public loses interest in any kind of space development. This is a serious fallacy because in future such space tourism services have the potential to become a popular new branch of the leisure and travel industry with the help of advanced aerospace technology, the economic effects of the growth of such activities will be very positive, not only for companies but also for world economic progress and society as a whole. Moreover under its influence, space development will resume its natural meaning of economic development in space, instead of its present meaning of development of government-selected technology and there use in space, generally without economic benefit. Challenges Confronting Space Tourism Commercial space activities today are mainly limited to communications, broadcasting and observation satellites. The decline in the commercial demand for satellites has lead to contraction of the commercial space industry and also to the need to develop new space markets if the space industry is to grow. Since there is no other space activity that offers any greater potential for growth, space agencies anti-space tourism stand is growing increasingly untenable. Thus in line we have certain challenges that again pose a threat to the development and growth of space tourism. Cost is one of the biggest challenges as such space travel by tourists is limited only to rich people till now. OECD space agencies have spent approximately $1 trillion since 1961 without any reduction in the cost of getting to space at all. This clearly reveals that space agencies have not been trying to cut the cost of getting to space. The fact is that the space agencies do not know how the cost of space flight can fall, because they have not studied the possibility. This strongly suggests that the cost of access to space as performed by space agencies in orders of magnitude is higher than it needs to be.  [17]  As further evidence of this, NASA is proposing to expend $14 billion for developing an expendable capsule of comparable capability to the Apollo capsule 40 years before, though possibly carrying more passengers. This vehicle would have a cost many times high er than Soyuz and would have no economic value.  [18]   As a consequence, unless they accept that there is an urgent need to reduce costs as far as technology allows, and to observe space tourism as the only activity that offers to link the economic energy of consumer spending on space development, space agencies role in the future development and exploration of space is likely to shrink progressively. Ultimately, by reducing the cost of space activities, the development of space travel will lead to the permanent and progressive expansion of human culture into space However; this will also require institutional change. As already discussed that space agencies focus more on development of satellites and the recent decline of commercial demand for satellites has led to rapid contraction of the space industry, of which the annual revenues are now barely 2% of the $1 trillion of cumulative expenditure made by OECD space agencies to date.  [19]  Thus it has become a strong notion that the agencies spend every year on space activities which are neither profitable nor lead to development of commercial space activities. In summary, space agencies negative stance is not economically justifiable; it is based on political calculation. Thus any kind of political considerations as well as stance of politicians play a vital role in discouraging such activities. So all this needs to change and the space agencies should remember their statutory responsibilities. Insurance Industry and Space Activities Linked As space tourism matures, it shows a picture of tremendous opportunity for insurance companies to offer coverage to space travelers, a much similar activity to what they carry out in airlines. Neither in space law or air law has the contract of insurance been regulated on an international level. Space Insurance has, however been available from private sources from a number of years. Space Insurance concerns especially communication satellites. The first insurance satellite contract, written for Intesats Early Bird in 1965, provided pre launch coverage. Pre-launch coverage will cover risk associated with the manufacturing and transport of satellites, but cover for the launch itself is also available. The two forms may include the risk of loss or damage to the space object and the risk of loss or damage to the on-board equipment. Regarding the insurance of spacecraft, I would like observe the following: insurers play a very important role, reducing the financial risk, which will make p arties more willing to finance spacecraft. The problem is that the companies would like to see the result first  [20]  . International conference on space business, was organized as part of Bengaluru Space Expo 2010, where speakers scrutinized that since Yuri Gagarins flight in 1961, 38 citizens from all over the globe have flown in space. Most of the individuals till date who have flown either were astronauts, military personnel or scientists who have been expensively and extensively trained, but as of now, one will also see the emergence of space tourism with space access for private individuals. S Ramakrishnan, Director of ISROs Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre, said that apart from satellite and space launching sector, personal space flights, space tourism and other space tourism activities are emerging as a possible market for insurance industry. Ramakrishnan referred to the successful Spaceship-I venture, and the Spaceship-II which is expected to take place shortly. These initiatives are currently being catered to only select people who enjoy the adventure spirit; they are perhaps paving the way for possible sub-orbital trans-atmospheric passenger and cargo transportation systems with commercial potential in not too distant future. At a session on risk management for space ventures, it was pointed out that risk cover in space tourism is possible, and something we can imagine. It was also pointed by Ramakrishnan as to the change in policy direction in USA-NASA in handing over of the earth orbit transportation sector to private sector, which has also been taking separate and promotional initiatives in this regard. As space tourism matures into personal space transportation system, it can be foreseen that what happened in beginning of the airline business (when insurance players started offering insurance cover for passengers) is taking the same turn in space tourism. Executive vice-president of ISB, Tim Wakeman, speaking on risk and insurance solutions for space ventures in the 21st century, said, within India, the space industry is thriving and contributing around `10,000 crore(`100 billion) per annum to the Indian economy. He said it is a good time to buy insurance for spacecraft as market conditions are favorable with premium rates declining and availability of insurance capacity is going up three-four times the demand. While space venture promises huge returns with an evolving sector, the execution risks are far too high. Risks involved in space sector are related to industrial, technological, commercial, financial, legal and in particular, insurance. Officials said that the time is ripe to share the risks and returns with other stakeholders who plan to enter business in space activities. Also it was said that despite the recent economic depression, the global space industry remains robust and healthy, United States decision to emphasize on commercial resupply of the International Space Station and reallocation of fiscal resources from Space Shuttle or manned space to earth observations and exploration. Indias space industry is registering explosive growth, with many opportunities for indigenous and foreign suppliers to help further develop the countrys communications and positioning, among other things. The above statement was made by Tom Captain, vice-chairman, Deloitte LLP, Global Aerospace Defence Sector Leader. A report released by CII-Antrix-Deloitte during the conference said the spending in space activities is expected to increase by an average of 14.8 per cent annually in India over the next four years and estimated to be `10,000 crore (`100 billion) by 2014. India is ranked sixth currently; globally in terms of technological capabilities and space budget, behind the US, Europe, Japan, Russia and China, as mentioned in a New India Space Market Study. Legal Regulations concerning Commercial Activities in space In near future space tourism will become the domain of private enterprises. However, commercial activities not necessarily need non-governmental or private participation. But for some reason it is the private enterprises that have supported the idea of space tourism until now. Space Tourism revolves around public interest and public welfare which in turn creates a tremendous need for manpower. Thus the states should support and provide adequate platform to private enterprises. Now a big that follows is which law will govern such private enterprises carrying out such activities. National law and International law both can be made applicable. Here we will be focusing only on international regulations that govern such entities. However, this takes place in an indirect way i.e. government and non-government bodies sometimes delegate certain tasks on private enterprise, Therefore the legal conditions regarding private activities in outer space have to be examined. Relevant Space Law treaties, Agreement and Conventions. Outer Space Treaty of 1967 The Outer Space Treaty is taken as the backbone of international space law. When the said Treaty was created and came to force there was no clue as to direct private activities in outer space. Nevertheless the Outer Space Treaty does not disregard private activities in outer space altogether. Art. VI and IX of Outer Space Treaty can be referred in this context. Moreover Art. I of the treaty mention the freedom principle and include the right of free access, the right of free exploration, and the right of free use. This freedom is only granted to the States.  [21]   United Nations has also deliberated on this issue through its resolution 1962(XVIII) of the General Assembly entitled Declaration on Legal Principles Governing Activities of States in the exploration and use of Outer Space. On the same lines Soviets have also proposed that all activities of any kind pertaining to the exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out solely and exclusively by States.  [22]   The Outer Space Treaty also stipulates the principle of exploration and use of outer space and so space tourism comes within the scope of use in this context. It is important to note here that no provision in the treaty mentions commercial. Art. VIII of Outer Space Treaty gives jurisdiction, ownership and control over the space object and its personnel in outer space into states hands. Although the Outer Space Treaty mainly discusses States Parties it has a ruling effect on such activities by private enterprises. Art. VI of Outer Space Treaty stipulates a national State responsibility for outer-space-activities carried either by a governmental or private organization.  [23]  Thus risks of space tourism could finally fall on states and they can be held liable. Such a legal situation is not satisfying for the State Parties or for the private enterprises engaged in space tourism. Liability Convention The Liability Convention was created as a consequence of Art. VI Outer Space Treaty i.e. the responsibility-principle. Art. II of the Liability Convention makes the launching state absolutely liable to pay compensation for any kind of damage caused by its space object on the earth surface or to aircraft in flight.  [24]  Article III of liability convention and IV of Outer Space Treaty provide that if the damage is caused elsewhere other than the surface of the earth, the launching state shall be only liable in case the damage is due to its fault or the fault of persons for whom it is responsible which covers non-governmental entities as well. The launching state is absolutely liable and is liable in different degrees of fault, but in final consequence the state is liable for damage caused by a private enterprise.  [25]   This adversely affects space tourism as the states refuse to allow private enterprises to perform space tourism, or that states set up exaggerated requirements. However, the Liability Convention must be considered as insufficient with regard the aspect of settlement of claims. Therefore it is suggested that the potentially unlimited liability of states mentioned in liability convention should be replaced by an international agreement that stipulates a limited and guaranteed maximum-amount-liability for such activities. Registration Convention 1975 The Registration Convention has two main functions i.e. to coordinate launches and to ensure identification of the launching state in respect of the Liability Convention. Private enterprises that want to carry out space tourism have to comply with this procedure. The problem occurs when a launching state is not a Member State of the Registration Convention. Thus this problem needs to be resolved for avoiding any kind of conflict.  [26]   Further in line we have the Moon Agreement and the Rescue Agreement that can also be referred while dealing with the legal issues involved in space tourism. Taking into consideration the present situation where there is no specific law that deals particularly with space tourism and at the same time presence of insufficient laws on outer space make the situation worse. Thus there is an immediate need to enact legislation for commercial activities in outer space such that states supervise the outer-space-activities of their governmental organizations or private enterprises. Another solution is to create an international treaty that grants an equal standardization and leads to more transparency and reliability for private enterprises in space tourism or any other commercial activity in outer space. Environment concerns Environmental concerns in case of space tourism cannot be avoided and is a big area of concern. Space-touristic traffic can have an effect on the environment on earth. However, newly-developed transport-systems which resemble more like aircrafts will work more efficiently and therefore less polluting. Art. IX of Outer Space Treaty also talks about the preservation of celestial bodies environment that might be interfered by space tourism. Accumulation of debris can also pollute the outer space environment.  [27]   Thus keeping in mind the common-heritage-principle space tourism has to comply with environmental standards. Conclusion Humans have outgrown the Earth several decades ago. Now it is time to correct the view that deceived both government and the public into believing the myth that space is a barrier rather than being full of opportunities. There are prospects in future for the start of sub-orbital passenger space flight operations from newly- developed commercial spaceports. Thus in order to maximize the benefits of this opportunity the public in many countries have to compel their governments to make relevant institutional changes which are needed to overcome the long stagnation of space activities maintained by the space agencies only and their clients who profit from present arrangements. Space tourism contains aspects of space transportation, manned space flight, and commercialization of outer space. Considering the loopholes in the existing laws there is an immediate need for a regulation, be it a treaty, to deal and cover conflicts and disputes that may arise. On these lines, there have been efforts made to create an agreement, to mention one, e.g. the Draft Convention on Manned Space Flight. Moreover, the approach of international space law needs to be properly re-defined and reconsidered to enable private enterprises to directly perform such commercial activities. The time has come to recognize that, far from being an eccentric or even misguided fringe activity, space travel and tourism should already be the mainstream and it would have been but for the huge economic and social deviations caused by the cold war. But instead of being the passive victims of history specifically of unfortunate incidents such as the cold war which destroyed vast quantities of resources, killed millions of people, and seriously stunned the development of the space industry to turn the focus on missiles and expendable launch vehicles developed from them. Initially this increased the rate of development of expendable rockets capable of delivering heavy payloads to orbit, and thereby increased the rate of first crewed flights to orbit. The after effect of this, was, that, civilian space activities based on expendable vehicles became a victim of cold war politics, and are still dominated by government space agencies political agendas, rather than generating economic value. The growth of Space Tourism Movement, which can be reasonably called so, is going to have a huge beneficial cultural effect, which will widen human horizons as appropriate for the 21st century. Under its influence, space development is going to resume its original meaning of economic development in space, instead of its present meaning of development of government-selected technology for use in space, generally without economic benefit. And the space age will have its original meaning of the period when people go to space as passengers, customers, employees, operators, managers and tenants but for government employees. As such, tourism is not going to be just a small part of future space activity, a small-scale activity even made smaller by government space agencies it is going to be the mainstream and highlighted space activity. Already it should have been the main focus of the government agencies by now. It is an extraordinary and a non performing idea that private citizens trave ling to and from space should not be the main activity in space. The idea that government knows better than the general public as to how their money should be spent is fundamentally a Soviet one  [28]  . But even after consuming $1 trillion on government space activities with no commensurate economic benefit to taxpayers, it is high time for the general public to insist that this mistaken policy be reframed and their demands be made significant to space development, as they are in aviation industry. Research Methodology: Impact of US Press on Pakistan Research Methodology: Impact of US Press on Pakistan CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY APPROACHES Qualitative Qualitative research is exploratory, and it is used when we don’t know what to suppose, to describe the problem or develop a slant to the problem. It’s also used to go deeper into issues of interest and explore tones related to the problem at hand. Common data collection methods used in qualitative research is focus groups, in-depth interviews, continuous observation, bulletin boards, and ethnographic contribution/observation. Qualitative methods that pronounce the properties of an event associated to the creator, or by using the expressive interpretations of ironic experience. Qualitative researchers, through the participants own reference frame social phenomenon is dedicated to considerate and investigation of how the world experience. Qualitative methods is a basic feature of human communication language will persist and as close as possible to the interpretation and understanding of a key in the map. Common qualitative methods, participatory action research, interview, observation, and qualitative case study (Evans, 2007). QuantitativeQuantitative research is conclusive research in its determination as it attempts to measure the problem and understand how predominant it is by looking for projectable results to a larger population. In Quantitative research we collect data through surveys (online, phone, paper), assessments, points of consumption and click-streams. Quantitative research is systematic empirical study of social phenomena through statistical, numerical data or computational techniques, and mathematical. The determination of quantitative research is to produce and apply mathematical models, theories and/or assumptions pertaining to phenomena. In quantitative research procedure of measurements necessary because it creates the association among empirical observation and mathematical expression of quantitative relationships. Quantitative data is every data that is in mathematical form such as statistics, percentages, etc. (Lisa, 2008). In the field of media studies, analysis of framing can be a place where discourse analysis and content analysis, typically by combining qualitative and quantitative methods. (Neuendorf, 2002). In fact, main purpose of this study is to investigate the US Policy towards Pakistan and India and framing in American newspapers therefore researcher used qualitative as well as quantitative approach to analyze the inclination of US press towards Pakistan and India in the selected newspapers. For this purpose researcher used content analysis as method of study. Qualitative content analysis is a difficult and critical procedure for examining or evaluating the written material. This means that results covering a wide range of qualities have been attained using the method.Content analysis is a broadly used qualitative research technique. (Potter Levine-Donnerstein, 1999;Sandelowski, 1995a, Hsiehand Shannon, 2005) Content Analysis: Content analysis is a quantitative, systematic, and objective technique for describing the evident content of communications (Berelson, 1952). RESEARCH QUESTIONS This study will examine the inclusion of American press towards Pakistan and India in the US Editorial study, Studied the two leading US Newspapers the New York Times and the Washington Post. The reasons for the selection of these newspapers are the prestigious and leading newspapers of US. It is also said that these newspaper are the medium of expression of the American policy. Both newspapers have a strong professional reputation covering almost all of the important issues of the country as well as the important issues of the world. The main questions of the Study are: What are the impacts of the American press relevant to the Issues of Pakistan in their inclination towards India? What are the impacts of the American press related to the Issues in Pakistan in their inclination towards Pakistan? Research Design Hansen Cottle (1998) propose that researchers should not only consider which the most appropriate method for their study is but also what combination of research methods might produce a better and deeper understanding of it. The aim should always be to choose those methods, or combination of methods, which can elaborate the most angles and dimensions of what are invariably multidimensional and complex processes and phenomena (Hansen, A. Cottle, S. 1998). Keeping in view the nature and requirement of this study, content analysis, the study is mainly a content analysis, which observed both qualitatively and quantitatively the Inclusion of American press towards Pakistan and India In some issues in The â€Å"New York Times â€Å"and the â€Å"Washington Post† Last 3 Years Water issue Indo-Pak peaceful relations (Trade, Showbiz, Sports) Kashmir issue Gas Pipeline Nuclear power Terrorism Others/ Miscellaneous 4. Methodology Content analysis method is adopted to conduct this study because having limited time or resources researcher only can manage to observe the newspapers, other methods for this study are more time and resources consuming. Content analysis produces a relatively systematic and comprehensive summary of overview of the data set as whole, sometimes incorporating a quantitative element. (Reference) Content AnalysisBernard Berelson defined Content Analysis as a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of manifest content of communications (Berelson, 74). Content analysis is a method for scientifically exploring written, oral or pictorial communication. It provides a quantitative (numerical) explanation. Many content analyses comprise media print (newspapers, magazines), video, movies, television, the Internet. Holsti (1969) compromises a comprehensive definition of content analysis as, any technique for making inferences by objectively and systematically identifying specified characteristics of messages (p. 14). Kerlinger (1986) has defined it as; content analysis is a method of studying and analyzing communication in a systematic, objective, and quantitative manner for the purpose of measuring variables, (cited in Wimmer, 1994:163-164) Content of the two newspapers, New York Times and Washington Post analyzed for this study for three year. (From January 2011 to December 2013) because data availability is possible in these years relevant to my topic that’s why I choice that specific time period. The reasons for the selection of these newspapers are the prestigious newspapers of US and also the medium of expression of the American policy. Both newspapers have a strong professional reputation covering almost all of the important issues of the country as well as the important issues of the world. The content analysis of the editorial is the †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Rationale for the Selection of the Two Newspapers† Ho (1962) defines prestige newspapers by two standards: (a) Quality of news reports; and (b) The influence on other media and political elites. According to this definition of prestige newspapers, The New York Times and The Washington Post are selected for this study both for quality and influence. According to Izadi (2007), The New York Times, and The Washington Post are deliberated prestige newspapers; and all two are amongst the main media outlets in the United States. He transcripts that these are also leading newspapers regarding the coverage of international events. 1.2. Population and Sampling: Population: Population is the broad class of units that are to be covered in a hypothesis and it can also be defined as the units to which the findings of a specific study might be generalized (Neuman). Target population is the aggregation of units from which sample is actually selected Population for this study will be all the editorials published in The New York Times and The Washington Post three year. Sampling: â€Å"A sampling element is the unit of analysis or a case in a population† (Neuman). A process of drawing representative elements from the larger population or universe is called sampling. Obvious advantage of sampling is especially savings in time and money. (Cited in Khel, 2000:48) By using purposive sampling researcher will take only those editorials which are related to the issues of Pakistan mentioned above. The editorials of the New York Times and The Washington Post were rescued from the E-Newspapers. January 2011 to December 2013. Editorials are deliberated the official view of a newspaper. According to Henry and Tator (2002), editorial study verifies to be very important when analyzing the ideological role of news media. The data for this research study include all editorials using the word -Pakistanà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬- in the headline or lead paragraph in the selected newspapers from Jan 2011 to Dec 2013. Each editorial was coded in terms of topic, frame, Slant and length. Sample Size In this study sample size mean editorials related to US foreign policy towards Pakistan and India in certain time period for analysis. Researcher selected the time period from January 2011 to December 2013 and selected Newspapers are the New York Times and The Washington Post. Unit of Analysis In this study unit of analysis is editorial because newspaper consists on many content. Therefore, researcher selected the particular unit for study. Also broad unit creates the problem for researcher as well as credibility and validity. Time period All the editorials of the above mentioned newspapers from January 2011 to December 2013 are used in this study. Categories and DirectionsThe categories are the heart of the content analysis. The collection of the data becomes possible and easy through the structure of the categories. A category in content analysis is a set of criteria or a measure, which are integrated round a theme or a value (Sarandakos, 1998: 281). These Categories are prepared for the current study the following categories are helped to find and investigate the US inclination towards Pakistan and India during the selected time period and also explore the relationship between both countries are positive or negative, favor or disfavor, foe or friend in the perspective of American press. The categories are following: A. Gas Pipeline B. Kashmir Dispute C. Pak-Indo Peace Relation D. Water Issue E. Nuclear Power F. Terrorism G. Others/ Miscellaneous The editorials regarding the above mentioned categories are treated to check the following directions: Positive/Supportive/ Favorable (+)Negative/Critical/ Unfavorable (-)Neutral (1)Favorable Any editorial is considered â€Å"Favorable† (+) if its stance is positive about Pak-India relations. Unfavorable Any editorial is considered as â€Å"Unfavorable†, (-) which is negative in tone or its stance is negative about Pak-India relations. Neutral Any editorial is deliberated as â€Å"neutral† (0) if the content of the editorial portrays faint highlighting of an issue or shows a balance of both positive and negative arguments regarding Pak-India relations. Issues descriptions: War on Terrorism:Terrorism was an old phenomenon. About last two to three decades ago, terrorism was generally arose due to native issues and accompanied by small groups that coveted to draw consideration to their origin through terrorist actions. It was formulated to finish a few but catch the attention of huge spectators. Currently, Terrorism is an ideologically driven phenomenon, its agenda is not bound to one country, and it is universal in charisma. The multinational flora of terrorism has led the governments to adopt new policies and improve collective regional efforts. After the 9/11 activity in America, the American administration stated an international war on terror, including open and secret military operations, new safety regulation, determinations to slab the financing of terrorism, and much more. America called all other countries to join this war against terrorism emphasizing that â€Å"either you are with us, or you are with the terrorists. Most of the countries join this fight against terrorism, often implementing strict new laws, lifting long-standing legal protections and marching up native policing and intelligence work. Critics protest that the war against terrorism is an ideology of fear and repression that creates enemies and promotes violence rather than mitigating acts of terrorism and to strengthen the security. The global campaign has too often displaced an excuse for governments, opposition groups and ignores international law and civil liberties to be. Governments should combat terrorism through international cooperation with international law and respect for civil liberties and human rights. Governments should also consider the causes of terrorism, in particular political alienation address by prejudice, state-sponsored violence and poverty. Kashmir Dispute: Gas Pipeline Pak-Indo Peaceful Relation Nuclear Power Water Issue Others / Miscellaneous Operationalization 1.4. Data Analysis and Interpretation The following categories are to be analyzed for the study in hand where â€Å"A† represents â€Å"Nuclear Power† â€Å"B† represents â€Å"Kashmir Dispute† â€Å"C† represents â€Å"Pak-Indo Peaceful Relation† â€Å"D† represents â€Å"Water Issue† â€Å"E† represents â€Å"Gas Pipeline† â€Å"F† represents â€Å"Terrorism† â€Å"G† represents â€Å"others/ Miscellaneous†

The Character of Jefferson in A Lesson Before Dying :: A Lesson Before Dying, Ernest J. Gaines

Jefferson, a black man condemned to die by the electric chair in the novel, A Lesson Before Dying, by Ernest J. Gaines, is perhaps the strongest character in African-American literature. Jefferson is a courageous young black man that a jury of all white men convicts of a murder he has not committed ; yet he still does not let this defeat destroy his personal character. Ernest Gaines portrays Jefferson this way to illustrate the fundamental belief that mankind’s defeats do not necessarily lead to his destruction. The author uses such actions as Jefferson still enjoying outside comforts, showing compassion towards others, and trying to better himself before dying. These behaviors clearly show that although society may cast Jefferson out as a black murderer, he can still triumph somewhat knowing that he retains the qualities of a good human being.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first trait Jefferson demonstrates after his incarceration is the fact that he still enjoys the outside comforts of small things such as a radio and diary. The fact that Jefferson still wants these things shows his imprisonment does not defeat him. In one of his last diary entries, Jefferson says , â€Å"shef guiry ax me what I want for my super an I tol him I want nanan to cook me som okra an rice an som pok chop an a conbred an som claba† (232). Jefferson still enjoys his aunt’s cooking, an outside pleasure from prison. The fact that he can still take pleasure from these small outside things clearly demonstrates that Jefferson enjoys a small victory over the world that has locked him away.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The second characteristic that shows society does not defeat Jefferson is Jefferson’s remaining strong compassion for everyone around him. This shows that through defeat, Jefferson remains a strong person by not holding any grudges against his incarcerators. A selection from his diary reads, â€Å"This was the firs time I cry when they lok that door bahind me the very firs time†¦I was cryin cause of the bok an the marble he giv me and cause o the people that com to see me† (231). Jefferson displays tenderness, which is an obvious sign that Jefferson has not let his imprisonment destroy him.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The final attribute Gaines uses in A Lesson Before Dying to show Jefferson’s lack of destruction is his trying to better himself before dying. Jefferson does this by repeatedly seeing Grant Wiggins and Reverend Ambrose in prison before his execution.

Aviation Essay

I am an individual wanting much more than just the usual learning that is taken from lower-level of education. My wanting for excellence has made it possible for me to want something more from myself. Undeniably, the different assessments that I have made upon myself as an individual has made me more interested in the progress that I could still make e a much better individual in the field that I am involved with a present. As a professional involved in the industry of aviation, I aim for better instructions that could assist me in becoming a better manager of the staff in my chosen field. Aviation, compared to other types of transportation is a serious industry that involves much more systematic approach in management and organization. For this reason, I know that simply meaning to know what management is is not enough for this section of the learning. Being in the industry of aviation is a serious task to consider. This is the reason why further learning has been my option which I know would equip me with the needed knowledge that I ought to use in my profession later on. Through the said learning that I am expecting to receive from the institution, I do expect to have a larger scope and possibilities of employment later on. I do believe that with better knowledge on the field that I am specializing at, I am sure to receive more competent skills that would help me in acquiring the right level of employment that I deserve. The ways by which I would be applying what I learn is the primary key in increasing the possibilities of employment that I am to face in the future.

Mastery in skills of the five senses Essay

This writer believes all children need mastery in skills of the five senses. For this purpose, preschool age children will be taught how to make a peanut butter sandwich. The lesson will be presented in a sequential relationship. Materials to be used are: spoon, bread, peanut butter, and wax paper. This lesson will take place in the â€Å"kitchen† section of the classroom. The lesson will begin with a question as to how many of the children like peanut butter sandwiches. If there are children who do not like it, they will still participate in the lesson and not eat the sandwich. If a child is allergic, they will be individually taught on how to make another sandwich utilizing the same amount of tasks, and basic procedure. The class will then be split into pairs, because there is a ratio of 4:1, children can be easily supervised. The teacher will present a lesson on how to make the sandwich, from getting the spoon out of the drawer, to wrapping the sandwich in wax paper. After the teacher has â€Å"taught† the lesson, the children will then have to attempt to master the skill. They will work in pairs to help each other figure it out, and they will have to learn how to get along as there will be few to spoons. Staff will be required to assist children with spreading of the peanut butter or wrapping it in the paper. However, after the lesson is presented to the class, the children will work independently, each one responsible for the sandwich. The lesson: the teacher will gather the children in the kitchen area of the classroom. The teacher will then list and describe all the materials needed. Speaking out loud, the teacher will say exactly what they are doing, while the children are watching (i. e. taking a spoon out of the drawer, opening the jar of peanut butter, bread, spreading, and wrapping). The teacher will then state that there are only enough spoons for half the class and they will have to share. Once every child has made a sandwich, the teacher will lead the class outside to eat their sandwiches along with bananas. The teacher will instruct the whole class on how to use bananas with the sandwich by instructing how to mash the banana by using the peel. In order to gauge mastery of the lesson, staff will observe two pairs each (four children). The staff will have a check sheet for all tasks involved in the lesson. If a child fails at a task, the staff will point put the missed step and ask the child to repeat it. However, if a child is unable to spread the peanut butter but demonstrates motivation, staff will assist without marking the sheet. Since the whole class will be tested on mastery of skill, the teacher will ask the children to make a peanut butter sandwich for lunch about once a month. In addition, the teacher will introduce new ingredients, such as apples, celery, and fluff to further motivate the children to share, to learn the foundations of non-heat cooking, and to instill self-confidence in the children as they master each skill. By using a task oriented lesson, presented logically and step by step, the teacher is ensuring that each child masters the making of a simple sandwich independently.

Why Fahrenheit 451 Will Always Be Terrifying

Why Fahrenheit 451 Will Always Be Terrifying There’s a reason dystopian science fiction is evergreen- no matter how much time goes by, people will always regard the future with suspicion. The common wisdom is that the past was pretty good, the present is barely tolerable, but the future will be all Terminator-style robots and Idiocracy slides into chaos. Every few years political cycles cause an uptick in attention being paid to classic dystopias; the 2016 Presidential election pushed George Orwell’s classic 1984 back onto the bestseller lists, and made Hulu’s adaptation of The Handmaid’s Tale a depressingly appropriate viewing event. The trend continues; HBO announced a film adaptation of Ray Bradbury’s classic 1953 science fiction novel Fahrenheit 451. If it seems surprising that a book published more than six decades ago might still be terrifying for modern audiences, you probably just haven’t read the novel recently. Fahrenheit 451 is one of those rare sci-fi novels that ages wonderfully- and remains just as terrifying today as it did in the middle of the 20th century, for a variety of reasons. More Than Books If you’ve been alive for more than a few years, odds are you know the basic logline of Fahrenheit 451: In the future, houses are largely fireproof and firemen have been re-purposed as enforcers of laws that prohibit the ownership and reading of books; they burn the homes and possessions (and books, natch) of anyone caught with contraband literature. The main character, Montag, is a fireman who begins to look at the illiterate, entertainment-obsessed, and shallow society he lives in with suspicion, and begins stealing books from the homes he burns. This is often boiled down to a slim metaphor on book-burning- which is a thing that still happens- or a slightly more subtle hot-take on censorship, which by itself makes the book evergreen. After all, people are still fighting to have books banned from schools for a variety of reasons, and even Fahrenheit 451 was bowdlerized by its publisher for decades, with a â€Å"school version† in circulation that removed the profanity and changed several concepts to less alarming forms (Bradbury discovered this practice and made such a stink the publisher re-issued the original in the 1980s). But the key to appreciating the terrifying nature of the book is that it isn’t just about books. Focusing on the books aspect allows people to dismiss the story as a book nerd’s nightmare, when the reality is that what Bradbury was really writing about is the effect he saw mass media like television, film, and other media (including some he couldn’t have predicted) would have on the populace: Shortening attention spans, training us to seek constant thrills and instant gratification- resulting in a populace that lost not just its interest in seeking the truth, but its ability to do so. Fake News In this new age of â€Å"fake news† and Internet conspiracy, Fahrenheit 451 is more chilling than ever because what we’re seeing is possibly Bradbury’s terrifying vision of the future playing out- just more slowly than he imagined. In the novel, Bradbury has the main antagonist, Captain Beatty, explain the sequence of events: Television and sports shortened attention spans, and books began to be abridged and truncated in order to accommodate those shorter attention spans. At the same time, small groups of people complained about language and concepts in books that were now offensive, and the firemen were assigned to destroy books in order to protect people from concepts they would be troubled by. Things are certainly nowhere near that bad right now- and yet, the seeds are clearly there. Attention spans are shorter. Abridged and bowdlerized versions of novels do exist. Film and television editing has become incredibly fast-paced, and video games have arguably had an effect on plot and pacing in stories in the sense that many of us need stories to be constantly exciting and thrilling in order to keep our attention, while slower, more thoughtful stories seem boring. The Whole Point And that’s the reason Fahrenheit 451 is terrifying, and will remain terrifying for the foreseeable future despite its age: Fundamentally, the story is about a society that voluntarily and even eagerly abets its own destruction. When Montag tries to confront his wife and friends with thoughtful discussion, when he tries to turn off the TV programs and make them think, they become angry and confused, and Montag realizes that they are beyond help- they don’t want to think and understand. They prefer to live in a bubble. Book-burning began when people chose not to be challenged by thoughts they didn’t find comforting, thoughts that challenged their preconceptions. We can see those bubbles everywhere around us today, and we all know people who only get their information from limited sources that largely confirm what they already think. Attempts to ban or censor books still get robust challenges and resistance, but on social media you can witness people’s hostile reactions to stories they don’t like, you can see how people create narrow â€Å"silos† of information to protect themselves from anything scary or unsettling, how people are often even proud of how little they read and how little they know beyond their own experience. Which means that the seeds of Fahrenheit 451 are already here. That doesn’t mean it will come to pass, of course- but that’s why it’s a frightening book. It goes far beyond the gonzo concept of firemen burning books to destroy knowledge- it’s a succinct and frighteningly accurate analysis of precisely how our society could collapse without a single shot being fired, and a dark mirror of our modern age where unchallenging entertainment is available to us at all times, on devices we carry with us at all times, ready and waiting to drown out any input we don’t want to hear. HBO’s adaptation of Fahrenheit 451 doesn’t have an air date yet, but it’s still the perfect time to re-introduce yourself to the novel- or to read it for the first time. Because it’s always a perfect time to read this book, which is one of the most frightening things you could possibly say.

Analysis of Elizabeth Keckleys Behind the Scenes Essay Example

Analysis of Elizabeth Keckleys Behind the Scenes Essay Example Analysis of Elizabeth Keckleys Behind the Scenes Paper Analysis of Elizabeth Keckleys Behind the Scenes Paper Brian Lindner Research Writing 109:2 Mrs. Linda Clary 6 October 2010 Analysis of Elizabeth Keckley’s Behind the Scenes The American Presidents have a distinct aura that surrounds them and covers their true identity with a faulty exterior, only portraying stoic, standup men. Elizabeth Keckley in her memoir Behind the Scenes gives us an inside look at President Lincoln and his wife Mary Todd Lincoln, as well as a look into her own life. Elizabeth Keckley was a black slave who bought her freedom, and worked for rich families as a seamstress, including working in the White House for Marry Todd Lincoln. She became close friends with Mrs. Lincoln and one of her only confidantes in the time after President Lincoln was assassinated (Dasher-Alston 1). In her piece Keckley explains how she sees the Lincolns at some of the best times that they have while in the White House as well as some of the worst times they have. Keckleys memoir gives us a deep look into three fascinating people’s true characteristics that would almost be unknown otherwise: Abraham Lincoln was a fun-loving, uncomplicated, caring man; Mary Todd Lincoln was an irritable, brash, strong woman; and Elizabeth Keckley was a hardworking, honest, and loyal woman. Abraham Lincoln gives off the appearance that he is always conducting himself with the up-most character and decorum, nearly always being pictured standing tall with his black suit and top hat however, this is not the case Mr. Lincoln was a fun-loving, uncomplicated man. He seems very relaxed at times almost like any other hard working man of that time. Keckley Lindner 2 accounts of a time where she was helping Mrs. Lincoln dress and he comes into the room: â€Å"Mr. Lincoln came in, threw himself on the sofa, laughed with Willie and little Tad, and commenced pulling on his gloves, quoting poetry all the while† (Keckley 178). Mr. Lincoln was also a simple man with simple pleasures. He owned two pet goats which he loved almost as if they were his own children. Lincoln is describing his goats to Keckley one afternoon and he says, â€Å"Madam Elizabeth, did you ever before see such an active goat? . . . [h]e feeds on my bounty, and jumps with joy. Do you think we could call him a bounty-jumper? But I flatter the bounty-jumper. My goat is far above him† (Keckley 179). In comparison many things are far above bounty-jumpers but to say that his goats can even compare to humans shows his love and shows how he treats them as if they were humans. Bounty-jumpers were men who accepted the cash bounty offered for enlisting in the civil war and then deserted (bounty jumper 1). Mr. Lincoln loved these simple pleasures in life; he was a fun-loving, uncomplicated man. Along with these fun characteristics he was also a caring man. He loved his children and his wife and kept them first in his life, but also had a kind word for all he came in contact with. Keckley gives examples of how President Lincoln laughs with his children, and would be outside playing with his children, and the fun they would share together playing with the pet goats (Keckley 178-79). It shows a lot into the character of the president that as busy as he was he made time for his children. He also treated his wife with an unconditional love. He complimented her and different times recited poetry to her. One instance President Lincoln said, â€Å"I declare you look charming in that dress. Mrs. Keckley has met with great success† (Keckley 178). The President used this playful use of poetry to both compliment his wife and be the romantic poetic husband every woman longs for. Lindner 3 The woman behind the great man was an irritable, brash woman. Mrs. Lincoln expected the best and sometimes perfection from the people she was around. When Keckley was being hired she remembered being in a room with three other dress makers waiting to be interviewed (Keckley 177). Keckley was the last to be seen as all the others could not meet the near perfect requirements that Mrs. Lincoln had set forth. She also made very brash, hasty decisions at different points. Keckley explains this brashness saying, â€Å"After Willie’s death, she could not bear the sight of anything he loved, not even a flower. Costly bouquets were presented to her . . . and [she] either placed them in a room where she could not see them, or threw them out the window† (Keckley 180). This quick, almost inconceivable action of throwing a gift out the window was an almost normal action for Mrs. Lincoln. Behind this brash, irritable exterior was a strong mother, who put up this front to hide pain and suffering. Mrs. Lincoln lost saw the death of one of her child and her husband cut short both of their lives. Following the death of Mr. Lincoln, one of the toughest things to deal with her son Tad pleads with her not to cry, because if he were to hear his mom crying he also would cry and break his heart. Mrs. Lincoln then calmed herself and hugged held her child (Keckley 183-84). Mrs. Lincoln in the time that she was suppose to be getting consoled put her son first, stopped crying, and put his needs before her own. Elizabeth Keckley was a hard working, honest woman. She worked hard to become the dress maker for the first lady. Keckley tells of a time when she was making a dress for Mrs. McClean one of her first customers, and she promised the dress would be made by Sunday. Keckley worked night and day working on that dress saying, â€Å"I would undertake the dress if I should have to sit up all night- every night, to make my pledge good† (Keckley 175). Keckley Lindner 4 did have the dress made by the deadline date keeping her word. It was this hard work and determination that led to her being the White House dress maker. Keckley was also a loyal friend to Mrs. Lincoln as well as her dress maker. She cared for her and Mrs. Lincoln trusted and confided in her. On the night that President Lincoln was shot, Keckley was overwhelmed with concern both for the President but also for Mrs. Lincoln. Keckley says, â€Å"I could not sleep. I wanted to go to Mrs. Lincoln as I pictured her with grief . . . and I must wait till morning (Keckley 182). Her first thoughts as often as they were, were not on herself and what this would mean for her career no longer being in the White House, but for her dear friend Mrs. Lincoln and the pain and grief she must have been going threw at this tragic time. Elizabeth Keckley takes us inside the White House, seeing the characters of Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln in a way that would otherwise be unknown, but in her telling us about them she also gives us great detail into her own life and the amazing woman she is. Abraham Lincoln will be remembered as a fun-loving, simple, and caring man, while Mrs. Lincoln will be remembered as brash, irritable, but ever so strong. Elizabeth Keckley who otherwise may be another unknown White House worker will be known for her hardworking, honest, and loyal ways. Beneath all these characters faulty exteriors lies a true interior that only a few can know, and because of Elizabeth Keckley, Mr. and Mrs. Lincoln are now seen in a different way. Lindner 5 â€Å"bounty jumper. † Def. 1. yourdictionary. com. Wiley, 2010. Web. 6 Oct. 2010. Dasher-Alston, Robin M. â€Å"Elizabeth Hobbs Keckley. † Voices From the Gaps. University of Minnesota, 6 Dec. 1998. Web. 6 Oct. 2010. Keckley, Elizabeth Hobbs. Behind the Scenes. Ed. Jay Parini. New York: Norton, 1999. Print.

Cardiovascular Diseases

Thanks to the rising health awareness and government programmes this number significantly reduce during last 30 years. Coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular diseases are diseases of the heart (cardiac muscle ) or blood vessels (vasculature). Cardiovascular disease (CVD) means all the diseases of the heart and circulation (blood vessels disease) including coronary heart disease (angina and heart attack) and stroke, as well as coronary and periphery blood vessels disease (problems with circulation). Diseases from this group are the biggest killer in Europe and USA, but developing and non-develop countries too. The final and most tragic consequence of different types of heart disease is heart attack with tragic consequences. Heart diseases are caused by atherosclerosis, a disease of arterial blood vessels resulted from atheroma i. . plaques accumulated (forming; sticking) on artery walls which makes the blood vessels nonelastic and narrowed and leads to decreased blood flow. For the atherosclerosis doctors very often use alternative name chronic cardiovascular disease. The opposite group acute heart disease made group of diseases which are dangerous for patients lives. Acute heart diseases include conditions or illnesses wh ich usually have a rapid onset of symptoms and may resolve within days with or without treatment. A condition or illness that is sudden or severe. On the other hand a condition or illness that arises slowly over days or weeks and may or may not resolve with treatment made a group of chronic heart disease. Both of them are caused by atheroma and the most known are next: a) Acute heart disease Heart attack is caused by lack of O2 in heart muscle cells. Very often it is caused by rupture of â€Å"hard plaques† patches which result in blood clots and partially or completely block blood flow and cause a heart attack. When a fiber cap becomes thin, these â€Å"hard plaques† can suddenly rupture, spilling their contents, resulting in blood clots that partially or completely block blood flow and cause a heart attack http://www. authorstream. com/Presentation/nitin-35423-heart-diseases-science-technology-ppt-powerpoint/ Cholesterol glossary. http://www. mybwmc. org/library/28/000225 Stroke Stroke is death of brain cells caused by obstructed blood flow to parts of the brain. Since the level of LDL cholesterol is main cause of narrowed of blood vessels, it is necessary control it. If not treated properly, high LDL cholesterol can cause a stroke. Cholesterol glossary. http://www. mybwmc. org/library/28/000225 b) Coronary heart disease Heart disease (coronary heart disease), When the plaque build up in th conorary arteries heart does not get sufficient blood, the condition is called coronary artery disease or coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis is a disease of arterial blood vessels in which plaques form on artery walls. This is a consequence of different substances circulating in the bloodstream (inflammatory cells, proteins, cholesterol and calcium) sticking inside the vessel walls. Plaque patches influence on narrowing blood flow in the artery. ttp://www. bodybuilding. com/fun/gastelu5. htm Peripheral artery disease (reduced blood flow in the limbs, usually the legs Coronary plaque Coronary plaque is a term which use in practice as a synonym for atheroma or atherosclerosis. Patches of atheroma are formed from substances that circulate in the bloodstream. They consist of lipid, or fat, cores covered by collagen fiber cap s which are sticking to the inside of the vessel walls. Over time plaque or patch of atheroma increases making an artery narrower and the blood flow through the artery is reducing. We can see the changes in blood vessels caused by plaque in the Figure 1. Figure 1 Artery with the patches of atheroma – plaque Preventing Cardiovascular Diseases. Patient. co. uk. emis www. patient. co. uk/health/Preventing-Cardiovascular-Diseases. htm (March 13, 2013) http://medicineworld. org/blogs/heart/blog/permalinks/Jan-2006/coronary-plaque-detection-by-molecular-imaging. html (March 13, 2013) Mature plaques typically consist of two main components: soft, lipid-rich atheromatous â€Å"gruel† and hard, collagen-rich sclerotic tissue. Lipid-rich and soft plaques are more dangerous than collagen-rich and hard plaques because they are more unstable and rupture-prone and highly thrombogenic after disruption. Researchers have found that many people who have heart attacks do not have arteries narrowed by plaque. Many heart attacks are now known to be caused by soft or vulnerable plaques, located on an inflamed part of an artery. This plaque can burst, leading to the formation of a blood clot that can cause a heart attack. The 2009 issue of â€Å"The American Journal Pathology† edited explanation of those relations discovered by Olga Ovchinnikova and er colleagues. They found that inflammation results in the formation of soft (vulnerable) plaque which is filled with different cell types that promote blood clotting. This leads to a reduction of mature collagen, resulting in thinner caps that are more likely to rupture, even in the cases when total level of plaque isn’t extremely high. The authors advocate d ifferent viewpoints about relations between the plaque level and structure, i. e. its influence on heart attack. The first group claims that described types of blockages cause only about 30 percent of heart attacks. On the other hand, some sources state that more than two-thirds of acute coronary events result from rupture of coronary plaques. However problems that plaque creates are extremely dangerous for people’s life and it is very important to prevent and monitor its appearance and changes. Graphs of vulnerable plaque and rupture of plaque which causes a heart attack is presented below. Figure 2 Vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. Vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. A. Atherosclerosis in a chronic disease that leads to plaque rupture and vascular occlusion. B. Cross-section of a lethal coronary plaque rupture. Adapted from Heistad D. Unstable coronary-artery plaques. N Engl J Med. 2003. Atherosclerosis Modeling In-vitro. http://www. remedi. uzh. ch/research/disease. html Figure 3 Plaque Rupture and Heart attack http://hon. nucleusinc. com/generateexhibit. php? ID=30468A=1027 Factors influencing plaque growth and stability Based on everything mentioned above and medical experience the conclusion about relations between heart attack and other cardiovascular disease and the level of plaque increasing are found. The higher the level of plaque the higher risk of heart disease will be. The level of plaque will increase as the result of high level of cholesterol, type LDL, so called â€Å"bad cholesterol† in blood. When the level of LDL is normal, blood can pass in and out of the blood vessels without problems, but if it significantly increase particles of the blood will accumulate and sooner or later provoke trigger (cause) heart attack. Other very important factors influencing plaque level increasing are high blood pressure and cigarette smoking. Both factors accelerate the plaque formation changing (damaging) artery walls and even more, helping cholesterol forming. Medical experience proved that plaque composition and vulnerability (hard or soft plaque) is more responsible for the conversion of a stable disease to a life-threatening condition than the plaque size. Except the plaque vulnerability the risk of plaque disruption is are consequence of rupture triggers (extrinsic forces). Soft plaque – lipid-rich one is more dangerous because of its instability and higher probability for rupture. Even (IAKO) Although â€Å"hard plaque† that one having higher level of calcium influence on the blood vessels walls and their â€Å"hardness† experience show that heart attacks are mostly caused by soft plaque disruption. Figure 4 Plaque rupture and its consequences in the form of heart diseases http://www. nature. com/nrg/journal/v7/n3/fig_tab/nrg1805_F2. html Risk factors of coronary heart disease Risk factors influencing cardiovascular disease we can group based on their stability into the three groups: a) Modifiable risk factors In this group hypertension is the most dangerous risk factor for heart attacks, but even more for stroke. It is forming as the result of abnormal blood lipid levels which means high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides and high levels of low-density lipoprotein or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Smoking, physical inactivity, Type 2 diabetes, and a diet full with saturated fats are risk factors strongly influencing the heart disease. All of them are treatable and patients (individuals) belonging into the different types of risk customers’ groups should avoid practice them. b) Non-modifiable risk factors The factors from this group mostly are constant, like the case in gender or family history. Others are changing when time is passing, like age and lifestyle and personal habits. Older people have more chance to get heart attack and the man, especially those having â€Å"bad medical history†. Ration between man and woman are changing when women past the menopause. After that the level of risk is similar as the men’s one. As I’ve presented there is direct correlation between cardiovascular disease and condition and health of blood vessels, more precisely of developing atheroma, means level and structure of plaque in vessels. On the other development of plaque and its level is directly influenced by level of cholesterol and some other elements which are connected with individual person and his/her life and genetic predispositions. As with the other diseases everybody has some risk of developing atheroma, but some risk factors increase the risk level for several categories. Those risk factors include: fn 12 †¢Fixed risk factors – factors that person cannot change: oA strong family history which means close relatives who developed heart disease or a stroke before they were 55 (for males) or 65 (for female). Severe baldness in men at the top of the head. oAn early menopause in women. oAge. Older people have more risk to develop atheroma. oEthnic group. Medical data show that people from different ethnic group have different risk for heart diseases. †¢Treatable or partly treatable risk factors include different health problems caused basically by the same causes as the: oHypertension (high bl ood pressure). oHigh cholesterol blood level. oHigh triglyceride (fat) blood level. oDiabetes. oKidney diseases causing diminished kidney function. All factors from this group have to be controlled and monitor. Any kind of their complication probably will trigger more serious problems such as heart attack or stroke. †¢Lifestyle risk factors that can be prevented or changed. Actually these factors PRETHODE precede to those belonging to the second group. Except the genetic factors way of life and daily habits are the more responsible for different kind of heart diseases. Those factors are: oSmoking (Smoking cigarette increase blood pressure, decrease HDL; damages arteries and blood cells and increases heart attacks. Passive smoking is also a risk factor for cardiovascular disease ) oLack of physical activity. Obesity (People who are overweight (10-30% more than their normal body weight) have 2 to 6 times the risk of developing heart disease. ) oAn unhealthy diet and eating too much salt. oExcess alcohol. Looking on those three groups one can easily conclude that people with â€Å"bad predisposition† having high fixed risk factors have to think about their lifestyle risk factors ev en more, in order to try to decrease the second group of factors (treatable or partly treatable risk factors). On the other hand some of risks are more dangerous than the others; for example smoking increases risk for heart disease more than obesity. And of course combination of two or more risk factors increases significantly the level of risks; older man (or woman) who smokes, without physical activity and with bad eating habits has more chance to get some of previously explained disease than the one who have â€Å"just one of bad habits†. The more risk factors someone has the greater is the likelihood that he/she will develop cardiovascular disease, unless taking action to modify his/her risk factors and working to prevent them compromising his/her heart health. That doesn’t mean that people with â€Å"good genes† can be irresponsible and ZANEMARITI risk factors from other groups. With or without genetic predisposition modern life significantly increases a risk of heart disease for everybody. Hormones impact on lipids and other risk factors Different numbers of man and women died from heart attack initiated a lot of research about hormones’ influence on the risk factor and heart disease development. Number of men died from the heart attack outnumbered the number of women in pre-menopause period, but in the post-menopause data show completely opposite situation. A percentage of women in post-menopause having heart disease and dying from heart attack increase dramatically and now outnumbered the men. The main reasons for those changes are connected to the level of hormones and their influence on level and structure of cholesterol and consequently on risk factors and heart disease. As mentioned before total cholesterol actually is made of two different types of cholesterol: LDL – low density lipoprotein (LDL), so called bad cholesterol and high density lipoprotein (HDL). High levels of LDL cholesterol lead to atherosclerosis increasing the risk of heart attack and ischemic stroke. HDL cholesterol reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease as it carries cholesterol away from the blood stream. http://www. walgreens. com/marketing/library/careguides/careguide. jsp? docid=000225=28=High%20Cholesterol Estrogen, a female hormone, raises HDL cholesterol levels, partially explaining the lower risk of cardiovascular disease seen in premenopausal women. But after menopause (natural or surgical) when a level of estrogen significantly decreases total cholesterol rises, low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol rises, and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol does not change or decreases slightly. This is the reason why negative hormones’ effect after menopause increasing more than proportionally. Some authors argue that even influence of estrogen on LDL and HDL level is proved it is yet unclear whether increase in risk is caused, at least partially, by increased level of androgen (the other of hormones belong to steroid as estrogen too), which is characteristics of menopause too. This sexual dimorphism means a lower incidence in atherosclerotic diseases in premenopausal women, which subsequently rises in postmenopausal women to eventually equal that of men. These observations point towards estrogen and progesterone playing a lifetime protective role against CAD in women. As exogenous estrogen and estrogen plus progesterone preparations produce significant reductions in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and significant increases in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, this should in theory lower the risk of CAD. UKLOPITI U ONO GORE Among estrogen’s positive effects on the heart are: †¢Reducing the LDL (â€Å"bad†) cholesterol in the blood. †¢Increasing the HDL (â€Å"good†) cholesterol in the blood. †¢Helping to keep blood vessels open. †¢Lowering blood pressure at night. †¢Reducing blood viscosity (how sticky the blood is), a property that may cause blood clots which could result in a heart attack or stroke. Estrogen’s effects on clotting are complicated, however, since there also is an increased risk for thromboembolism (a blood clot that blocks a vessel) in women taking estrogen. Possibly enhancing fibrinolysis, which is the body’s natural process for breaking down blood clots. Read more: http://ehealthmd. com/content/what-are-benefits-hrt#ixzz2NbWR3MxY http://ehealthmd. com/content/what-are-benefits-hrt#axzz2NbW1GJJN Nutrition guidelines As presented before three different groups of risk factor exist. Some of them people can cha nge but the other are fixed, non-changeable because they caused by genetic heritage ( ) influences. Controllable factors are connected to the lifestyle of person. Lifestyle changes can prevent or slow the development of coronary plaque and heart disease. In order to prevent a disease development one have to keep track of his/her blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Choosing a heart-healthy diet is vital in controlling weight, which helps keep blood pressure and cholesterol levels down. Foods high in cholesterol and saturated fat should be avoided, and quitting smoking is imperative. Regular exercise and an increased overall activity level contribute to heart health and help reduce stress. The risk of cardiovascular disease is possible to reduce following recommendation for lifestyle changing: Cessation of smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Nutrition should ensure a healthy diet wiht total diet no more than 8% of saturated + trans fatty acids of total energy intake. All people, especially ones with high risk factors should lower alcohol consumption As the prevention physical activities are recommended – at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity per day or three days week (i. e. 150 mins/week minimum). Currently practiced measures to prevent cardiovascular disease include: †¢A low-fat, high-fiber diet including whole grains and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables (at least five portions a day)[29][30] †¢Tobacco cessation and avoidance of second-hand smoke;[29] †¢Limit alcohol consumption to the recommended daily limits;[29] consumption of 1-2 standard alcoholic drinks per day may reduce risk by 30%[31][32] However excessive alcohol intake increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. [33] †¢Lower blood pressures, if elevated, through the use of antihypertensive medications[citation needed]; †¢Decrease body fat (BMI) if overweight or obese;[34] Increase daily activity to 30 minutes of vigorous exercise per day at least five times per week;[29] †¢Decrease psychosocial stress. [35] Stress however plays a relatively minor role in hypertension. [36] Specific relaxation therapies are not supported by the evidence. [37] Routine counselling of adults to advis e them to improve their diet and increase their physical activity has not been found to significantly alter behaviour, and thus is not recommended. [38] http://www. news-medical. net/health/What-is-Cardiovascular-Disease. aspx http://www. barnesandnoble. om/w/prevent-halt-and-reverse-heart-disease-joseph-piscatella/1100260037 Primary and secondary prevention of heart disease It is necessary start with prevention from heart disease as early as possible. Changes in the number of people killed by heart attack in developed countries show that prevention and awareness about this group of disease help to http://circ. ahajournals. org/content/123/20/2274/F2. expansion. html health plans must continue to drive cardiovascular care further along the continuum toward primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). CVD risk factors should be managed not only after a coronary event has occurred, but also before the onset of such and event. Ideally, health lifestyles should be promoted with all patients so that risk factors for CVD never develop. In this way, CVD care can be moved from the inpatient setting to the outpatient setting. Sidney C. Smith Jr, MD. Focus on Cardiovascular Disease; A Word About the Quality of Care in Cardiovascular Disease. Director, Center for Cardiovascular Science and Medicine University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. http://www. qualityprofiles. rg/leadership_series/cardiovascular_disease/cardiovascular_introduction. asp Key priorities for implementation Primary prevention of CVD †¢For the primary prevention of CVD in primary care, a systematic strategy should be used to identify people aged 40–74 who are likely to be at high risk †¢People should be prioritised on the basis of an estimate of their CVD risk before a full formal risk assessment. Thei r CVD risk should be estimated using CVD risk factors already recorded in primary care electronic medical records †¢Risk equations should be used to assess CVD risk People should be offered information about their absolute risk of CVD and about the absolute benefits and harms of an intervention over a 10-year period. This information should be in a form that: opresents individualised risk and benefit scenarios opresents the absolute risk of events numerically ouses appropriate diagrams and text (See www. npci. org. uk) †¢Before offering lipid modification therapy for primary prevention, all other modifiable CVD risk factors should be considered and their management optimised if possible. Baseline blood tests and clinical assessment should be performed, and comorbidities and secondary causes of dyslipidaemia should be treated. Assessment should include: osmoking status oalcohol consumption oblood pressure (see ‘Hypertension’, NICE clinical guideline 34) obody mass index or other measure of obesity (see ‘Obesity’, NICE clinical guideline 43) ofasting total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides (if fasting levels are not already available) ofasting blood glucose orenal function oliver function (transaminases) thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) if dyslipidaemia is present †¢Statin therapy is recommended as part of the management strategy for the primary prevention of CVD for adults who have a 20% or greater 10-year risk of developing CVD. This level of risk should be estimated using an appropriate risk calculator, or by clinical assessment for people for whom an appropriate risk calculator is not available or approp riate (for example, older people, people with diabetes or people in high-risk ethnic groups) †¢Treatment for the primary prevention of CVD should be initiated with simvastatin 40 mg. If there are potential drug interactions, or simvastatin 40 mg is contraindicated, a lower dose or alternative preparation such as pravastatin may be chosen. Secondary prevention of CVD †¢For secondary prevention, lipid modification therapy should be offered and should not be delayed by management of modifiable risk factors. Blood tests and clinical assessment should be performed, and comorbidities and secondary causes of dyslipidaemia should be treated. Assessment should include: osmoking status oalcohol consumption oblood pressure (see ‘Hypertension’, NICE clinical guideline 34) obody mass index or other measure of obesity (see ‘Obesity’, NICE clinical guideline 43) ofasting total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides (if fasting levels are not already available) ofasting blood glucose orenal function oliver function (transaminases) othyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) if dyslipidaemia is present. Statin therapy is recommended for adults with clinical evidence of CVD †¢People with acute coronary syndrome should be treated with a higher intensity statin. Any decision to offer a higher intensity statin should take into account the patient’s informed preference, comorbidities, multiple drug therapy, and the benefits and risks of treatment †¢Treatment for the secondary prevention of CVD should be initiated with simvastatin 40 mg. If there are potential drug interactions , or simvastatin 40 mg is contraindicated, a lower dose or alternative preparation such as pravastatin ay be chosen †¢In people taking statins for secondary prevention, consider increasing to simvastatin 80 mg or a drug of similar efficacy and acquisition cost if a total cholesterol of less than 4 mmol/litre or an LDL cholesterol of less than 2 mmol/litre is not attained. Any decision to offer a higher intensity statin should take into account informed preference, comorbidities, multiple drug therapy, and the benefit and risks of treatment http://www. eguidelines. co. uk/eguidelinesmain/guidelines/summaries/cardiovascular/nice_lipid_modification. php How to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease The risk of cardiovascular disease is possible to reduce following recommendation for lifestyle changing: Cessation of smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Nutrition should ensure a healthy diet wiht total diet no more than 8% of saturated + trans fatty acids of total energy intake. All people, especially ones with high risk factors should lower alcohol consumption As the prevention physical activities are recommended – at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity per day or three days week (i. . 150 mins/week minimum). Cessation of smoking The aim of this measure is complete cessation of smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Patient and their families need to stop smoking. Those who are unable to quit may need professional help in form of counselling, behavioral therapy and even pharmacological therapy. Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) is the first line choice of medication. Nutrition The aim of thi s measure is to ensure a healthy diet. Total diet should have no more than 8% (of total energy intake) of saturated + trans fatty acids. All patients are advised to take approximately 1g Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and more than 2g Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA) daily. Diet should have vegetables, fruits and legumes, grain-based foods, moderate amounts of lean meats, poultry, fish and reduced fat dairy products. EPA and DHA can be obtained from oily fish and marine n-3 (fish oil) capsule supplements. Alcohol consumption All patients should be advised to lower alcohol consumption. Men should drink no more than 2 standard drinks per day and women no more than 1 standard drink per day. Physical activity The aim of this measure is to raise physical activity and exercise to the recommended goal of at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (i. e. 150 mins/week minimum). Maintaining a healthy body weight The aim should be to achieve a waist measure of less than or equal to 94 cm in men and less than or equal to 80 cm in women. The body mass index (BMI) should be maintained at 18. 5–24. 9 kg/m2 Lowering blood cholesterol The aim of therapy should be to maintain blood cholesterol at: †¢Low density lipoprotein (LDL) at – less than 2. mmol/L †¢HDL – more than 1. 0 mmol/L †¢Triglyceride (TG) less than 1. 5 mmol/L The blood cholesterol can be maintained with the use of pharmacotherapy. Statins are commonly used lipid lowering drugs. Those with diabetes and atherosclerosis need stringent blood cholesterol control as well. Other lipid lowering drugs include fibrates like gemfibrosil, clofibrates etc, Eze timiber and niacin. Lowering blood pressure High blood pressure is one of the important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Those with coronary heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease or stroke need tight blood pressure control. The aim should be a blood pressure of less than 130/80 mm of Hg. Diabetes and blood sugar control Those diagnosed with diabetes need stringent blood sugar control to prevent cardiovascular damage. HbA1c levels should be maintained at less than 7%. Other drugs to lower risk of cardiovascular disease Other drugs used to lower risk of cardiovascular diseases include: †¢Antiplatelet agents – this includes Aspirin and Clopidogrel. These drugs when given to patients with risk of heart attacks may prevent such attacks and events. †¢ACE inhibitors like Enalapril, Captopril, Lsinopril and Cardiovascular Diseases Thanks to the rising health awareness and government programmes this number significantly reduce during last 30 years. Coronary heart disease and cardiovascular disease Cardiovascular diseases are diseases of the heart (cardiac muscle ) or blood vessels (vasculature). Cardiovascular disease (CVD) means all the diseases of the heart and circulation (blood vessels disease) including coronary heart disease (angina and heart attack) and stroke, as well as coronary and periphery blood vessels disease (problems with circulation). Diseases from this group are the biggest killer in Europe and USA, but developing and non-develop countries too. The final and most tragic consequence of different types of heart disease is heart attack with tragic consequences. Heart diseases are caused by atherosclerosis, a disease of arterial blood vessels resulted from atheroma i. . plaques accumulated (forming; sticking) on artery walls which makes the blood vessels nonelastic and narrowed and leads to decreased blood flow. For the atherosclerosis doctors very often use alternative name chronic cardiovascular disease. The opposite group acute heart disease made group of diseases which are dangerous for patients lives. Acute heart diseases include conditions or illnesses wh ich usually have a rapid onset of symptoms and may resolve within days with or without treatment. A condition or illness that is sudden or severe. On the other hand a condition or illness that arises slowly over days or weeks and may or may not resolve with treatment made a group of chronic heart disease. Both of them are caused by atheroma and the most known are next: a) Acute heart disease Heart attack is caused by lack of O2 in heart muscle cells. Very often it is caused by rupture of â€Å"hard plaques† patches which result in blood clots and partially or completely block blood flow and cause a heart attack. When a fiber cap becomes thin, these â€Å"hard plaques† can suddenly rupture, spilling their contents, resulting in blood clots that partially or completely block blood flow and cause a heart attack http://www. authorstream. com/Presentation/nitin-35423-heart-diseases-science-technology-ppt-powerpoint/ Cholesterol glossary. http://www. mybwmc. org/library/28/000225 Stroke Stroke is death of brain cells caused by obstructed blood flow to parts of the brain. Since the level of LDL cholesterol is main cause of narrowed of blood vessels, it is necessary control it. If not treated properly, high LDL cholesterol can cause a stroke. Cholesterol glossary. http://www. mybwmc. org/library/28/000225 b) Coronary heart disease Heart disease (coronary heart disease), When the plaque build up in th conorary arteries heart does not get sufficient blood, the condition is called coronary artery disease or coronary heart disease. Atherosclerosis is a disease of arterial blood vessels in which plaques form on artery walls. This is a consequence of different substances circulating in the bloodstream (inflammatory cells, proteins, cholesterol and calcium) sticking inside the vessel walls. Plaque patches influence on narrowing blood flow in the artery. ttp://www. bodybuilding. com/fun/gastelu5. htm Peripheral artery disease (reduced blood flow in the limbs, usually the legs Coronary plaque Coronary plaque is a term which use in practice as a synonym for atheroma or atherosclerosis. Patches of atheroma are formed from substances that circulate in the bloodstream. They consist of lipid, or fat, cores covered by collagen fiber cap s which are sticking to the inside of the vessel walls. Over time plaque or patch of atheroma increases making an artery narrower and the blood flow through the artery is reducing. We can see the changes in blood vessels caused by plaque in the Figure 1. Figure 1 Artery with the patches of atheroma – plaque Preventing Cardiovascular Diseases. Patient. co. uk. emis www. patient. co. uk/health/Preventing-Cardiovascular-Diseases. htm (March 13, 2013) http://medicineworld. org/blogs/heart/blog/permalinks/Jan-2006/coronary-plaque-detection-by-molecular-imaging. html (March 13, 2013) Mature plaques typically consist of two main components: soft, lipid-rich atheromatous â€Å"gruel† and hard, collagen-rich sclerotic tissue. Lipid-rich and soft plaques are more dangerous than collagen-rich and hard plaques because they are more unstable and rupture-prone and highly thrombogenic after disruption. Researchers have found that many people who have heart attacks do not have arteries narrowed by plaque. Many heart attacks are now known to be caused by soft or vulnerable plaques, located on an inflamed part of an artery. This plaque can burst, leading to the formation of a blood clot that can cause a heart attack. The 2009 issue of â€Å"The American Journal Pathology† edited explanation of those relations discovered by Olga Ovchinnikova and er colleagues. They found that inflammation results in the formation of soft (vulnerable) plaque which is filled with different cell types that promote blood clotting. This leads to a reduction of mature collagen, resulting in thinner caps that are more likely to rupture, even in the cases when total level of plaque isn’t extremely high. The authors advocate d ifferent viewpoints about relations between the plaque level and structure, i. e. its influence on heart attack. The first group claims that described types of blockages cause only about 30 percent of heart attacks. On the other hand, some sources state that more than two-thirds of acute coronary events result from rupture of coronary plaques. However problems that plaque creates are extremely dangerous for people’s life and it is very important to prevent and monitor its appearance and changes. Graphs of vulnerable plaque and rupture of plaque which causes a heart attack is presented below. Figure 2 Vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. Vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. A. Atherosclerosis in a chronic disease that leads to plaque rupture and vascular occlusion. B. Cross-section of a lethal coronary plaque rupture. Adapted from Heistad D. Unstable coronary-artery plaques. N Engl J Med. 2003. Atherosclerosis Modeling In-vitro. http://www. remedi. uzh. ch/research/disease. html Figure 3 Plaque Rupture and Heart attack http://hon. nucleusinc. com/generateexhibit. php? ID=30468A=1027 Factors influencing plaque growth and stability Based on everything mentioned above and medical experience the conclusion about relations between heart attack and other cardiovascular disease and the level of plaque increasing are found. The higher the level of plaque the higher risk of heart disease will be. The level of plaque will increase as the result of high level of cholesterol, type LDL, so called â€Å"bad cholesterol† in blood. When the level of LDL is normal, blood can pass in and out of the blood vessels without problems, but if it significantly increase particles of the blood will accumulate and sooner or later provoke trigger (cause) heart attack. Other very important factors influencing plaque level increasing are high blood pressure and cigarette smoking. Both factors accelerate the plaque formation changing (damaging) artery walls and even more, helping cholesterol forming. Medical experience proved that plaque composition and vulnerability (hard or soft plaque) is more responsible for the conversion of a stable disease to a life-threatening condition than the plaque size. Except the plaque vulnerability the risk of plaque disruption is are consequence of rupture triggers (extrinsic forces). Soft plaque – lipid-rich one is more dangerous because of its instability and higher probability for rupture. Even (IAKO) Although â€Å"hard plaque† that one having higher level of calcium influence on the blood vessels walls and their â€Å"hardness† experience show that heart attacks are mostly caused by soft plaque disruption. Figure 4 Plaque rupture and its consequences in the form of heart diseases http://www. nature. com/nrg/journal/v7/n3/fig_tab/nrg1805_F2. html Risk factors of coronary heart disease Risk factors influencing cardiovascular disease we can group based on their stability into the three groups: a) Modifiable risk factors In this group hypertension is the most dangerous risk factor for heart attacks, but even more for stroke. It is forming as the result of abnormal blood lipid levels which means high total cholesterol, high levels of triglycerides and high levels of low-density lipoprotein or low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL). Smoking, physical inactivity, Type 2 diabetes, and a diet full with saturated fats are risk factors strongly influencing the heart disease. All of them are treatable and patients (individuals) belonging into the different types of risk customers’ groups should avoid practice them. b) Non-modifiable risk factors The factors from this group mostly are constant, like the case in gender or family history. Others are changing when time is passing, like age and lifestyle and personal habits. Older people have more chance to get heart attack and the man, especially those having â€Å"bad medical history†. Ration between man and woman are changing when women past the menopause. After that the level of risk is similar as the men’s one. As I’ve presented there is direct correlation between cardiovascular disease and condition and health of blood vessels, more precisely of developing atheroma, means level and structure of plaque in vessels. On the other development of plaque and its level is directly influenced by level of cholesterol and some other elements which are connected with individual person and his/her life and genetic predispositions. As with the other diseases everybody has some risk of developing atheroma, but some risk factors increase the risk level for several categories. Those risk factors include: fn 12 †¢Fixed risk factors – factors that person cannot change: oA strong family history which means close relatives who developed heart disease or a stroke before they were 55 (for males) or 65 (for female). Severe baldness in men at the top of the head. oAn early menopause in women. oAge. Older people have more risk to develop atheroma. oEthnic group. Medical data show that people from different ethnic group have different risk for heart diseases. †¢Treatable or partly treatable risk factors include different health problems caused basically by the same causes as the: oHypertension (high bl ood pressure). oHigh cholesterol blood level. oHigh triglyceride (fat) blood level. oDiabetes. oKidney diseases causing diminished kidney function. All factors from this group have to be controlled and monitor. Any kind of their complication probably will trigger more serious problems such as heart attack or stroke. †¢Lifestyle risk factors that can be prevented or changed. Actually these factors PRETHODE precede to those belonging to the second group. Except the genetic factors way of life and daily habits are the more responsible for different kind of heart diseases. Those factors are: oSmoking (Smoking cigarette increase blood pressure, decrease HDL; damages arteries and blood cells and increases heart attacks. Passive smoking is also a risk factor for cardiovascular disease ) oLack of physical activity. Obesity (People who are overweight (10-30% more than their normal body weight) have 2 to 6 times the risk of developing heart disease. ) oAn unhealthy diet and eating too much salt. oExcess alcohol. Looking on those three groups one can easily conclude that people with â€Å"bad predisposition† having high fixed risk factors have to think about their lifestyle risk factors ev en more, in order to try to decrease the second group of factors (treatable or partly treatable risk factors). On the other hand some of risks are more dangerous than the others; for example smoking increases risk for heart disease more than obesity. And of course combination of two or more risk factors increases significantly the level of risks; older man (or woman) who smokes, without physical activity and with bad eating habits has more chance to get some of previously explained disease than the one who have â€Å"just one of bad habits†. The more risk factors someone has the greater is the likelihood that he/she will develop cardiovascular disease, unless taking action to modify his/her risk factors and working to prevent them compromising his/her heart health. That doesn’t mean that people with â€Å"good genes† can be irresponsible and ZANEMARITI risk factors from other groups. With or without genetic predisposition modern life significantly increases a risk of heart disease for everybody. Hormones impact on lipids and other risk factors Different numbers of man and women died from heart attack initiated a lot of research about hormones’ influence on the risk factor and heart disease development. Number of men died from the heart attack outnumbered the number of women in pre-menopause period, but in the post-menopause data show completely opposite situation. A percentage of women in post-menopause having heart disease and dying from heart attack increase dramatically and now outnumbered the men. The main reasons for those changes are connected to the level of hormones and their influence on level and structure of cholesterol and consequently on risk factors and heart disease. As mentioned before total cholesterol actually is made of two different types of cholesterol: LDL – low density lipoprotein (LDL), so called bad cholesterol and high density lipoprotein (HDL). High levels of LDL cholesterol lead to atherosclerosis increasing the risk of heart attack and ischemic stroke. HDL cholesterol reduces the risk of cardiovascular disease as it carries cholesterol away from the blood stream. http://www. walgreens. com/marketing/library/careguides/careguide. jsp? docid=000225=28=High%20Cholesterol Estrogen, a female hormone, raises HDL cholesterol levels, partially explaining the lower risk of cardiovascular disease seen in premenopausal women. But after menopause (natural or surgical) when a level of estrogen significantly decreases total cholesterol rises, low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol rises, and high density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol does not change or decreases slightly. This is the reason why negative hormones’ effect after menopause increasing more than proportionally. Some authors argue that even influence of estrogen on LDL and HDL level is proved it is yet unclear whether increase in risk is caused, at least partially, by increased level of androgen (the other of hormones belong to steroid as estrogen too), which is characteristics of menopause too. This sexual dimorphism means a lower incidence in atherosclerotic diseases in premenopausal women, which subsequently rises in postmenopausal women to eventually equal that of men. These observations point towards estrogen and progesterone playing a lifetime protective role against CAD in women. As exogenous estrogen and estrogen plus progesterone preparations produce significant reductions in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels and significant increases in high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, this should in theory lower the risk of CAD. UKLOPITI U ONO GORE Among estrogen’s positive effects on the heart are: †¢Reducing the LDL (â€Å"bad†) cholesterol in the blood. †¢Increasing the HDL (â€Å"good†) cholesterol in the blood. †¢Helping to keep blood vessels open. †¢Lowering blood pressure at night. †¢Reducing blood viscosity (how sticky the blood is), a property that may cause blood clots which could result in a heart attack or stroke. Estrogen’s effects on clotting are complicated, however, since there also is an increased risk for thromboembolism (a blood clot that blocks a vessel) in women taking estrogen. Possibly enhancing fibrinolysis, which is the body’s natural process for breaking down blood clots. Read more: http://ehealthmd. com/content/what-are-benefits-hrt#ixzz2NbWR3MxY http://ehealthmd. com/content/what-are-benefits-hrt#axzz2NbW1GJJN Nutrition guidelines As presented before three different groups of risk factor exist. Some of them people can cha nge but the other are fixed, non-changeable because they caused by genetic heritage ( ) influences. Controllable factors are connected to the lifestyle of person. Lifestyle changes can prevent or slow the development of coronary plaque and heart disease. In order to prevent a disease development one have to keep track of his/her blood pressure and cholesterol levels. Choosing a heart-healthy diet is vital in controlling weight, which helps keep blood pressure and cholesterol levels down. Foods high in cholesterol and saturated fat should be avoided, and quitting smoking is imperative. Regular exercise and an increased overall activity level contribute to heart health and help reduce stress. The risk of cardiovascular disease is possible to reduce following recommendation for lifestyle changing: Cessation of smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Nutrition should ensure a healthy diet wiht total diet no more than 8% of saturated + trans fatty acids of total energy intake. All people, especially ones with high risk factors should lower alcohol consumption As the prevention physical activities are recommended – at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity per day or three days week (i. e. 150 mins/week minimum). Currently practiced measures to prevent cardiovascular disease include: †¢A low-fat, high-fiber diet including whole grains and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables (at least five portions a day)[29][30] †¢Tobacco cessation and avoidance of second-hand smoke;[29] †¢Limit alcohol consumption to the recommended daily limits;[29] consumption of 1-2 standard alcoholic drinks per day may reduce risk by 30%[31][32] However excessive alcohol intake increases the risk of cardiovascular disease. [33] †¢Lower blood pressures, if elevated, through the use of antihypertensive medications[citation needed]; †¢Decrease body fat (BMI) if overweight or obese;[34] Increase daily activity to 30 minutes of vigorous exercise per day at least five times per week;[29] †¢Decrease psychosocial stress. [35] Stress however plays a relatively minor role in hypertension. [36] Specific relaxation therapies are not supported by the evidence. [37] Routine counselling of adults to advis e them to improve their diet and increase their physical activity has not been found to significantly alter behaviour, and thus is not recommended. [38] http://www. news-medical. net/health/What-is-Cardiovascular-Disease. aspx http://www. barnesandnoble. om/w/prevent-halt-and-reverse-heart-disease-joseph-piscatella/1100260037 Primary and secondary prevention of heart disease It is necessary start with prevention from heart disease as early as possible. Changes in the number of people killed by heart attack in developed countries show that prevention and awareness about this group of disease help to http://circ. ahajournals. org/content/123/20/2274/F2. expansion. html health plans must continue to drive cardiovascular care further along the continuum toward primary prevention of cardiovascular disease (CVD). CVD risk factors should be managed not only after a coronary event has occurred, but also before the onset of such and event. Ideally, health lifestyles should be promoted with all patients so that risk factors for CVD never develop. In this way, CVD care can be moved from the inpatient setting to the outpatient setting. Sidney C. Smith Jr, MD. Focus on Cardiovascular Disease; A Word About the Quality of Care in Cardiovascular Disease. Director, Center for Cardiovascular Science and Medicine University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. http://www. qualityprofiles. rg/leadership_series/cardiovascular_disease/cardiovascular_introduction. asp Key priorities for implementation Primary prevention of CVD †¢For the primary prevention of CVD in primary care, a systematic strategy should be used to identify people aged 40–74 who are likely to be at high risk †¢People should be prioritised on the basis of an estimate of their CVD risk before a full formal risk assessment. Thei r CVD risk should be estimated using CVD risk factors already recorded in primary care electronic medical records †¢Risk equations should be used to assess CVD risk People should be offered information about their absolute risk of CVD and about the absolute benefits and harms of an intervention over a 10-year period. This information should be in a form that: opresents individualised risk and benefit scenarios opresents the absolute risk of events numerically ouses appropriate diagrams and text (See www. npci. org. uk) †¢Before offering lipid modification therapy for primary prevention, all other modifiable CVD risk factors should be considered and their management optimised if possible. Baseline blood tests and clinical assessment should be performed, and comorbidities and secondary causes of dyslipidaemia should be treated. Assessment should include: osmoking status oalcohol consumption oblood pressure (see ‘Hypertension’, NICE clinical guideline 34) obody mass index or other measure of obesity (see ‘Obesity’, NICE clinical guideline 43) ofasting total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides (if fasting levels are not already available) ofasting blood glucose orenal function oliver function (transaminases) thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) if dyslipidaemia is present †¢Statin therapy is recommended as part of the management strategy for the primary prevention of CVD for adults who have a 20% or greater 10-year risk of developing CVD. This level of risk should be estimated using an appropriate risk calculator, or by clinical assessment for people for whom an appropriate risk calculator is not available or approp riate (for example, older people, people with diabetes or people in high-risk ethnic groups) †¢Treatment for the primary prevention of CVD should be initiated with simvastatin 40 mg. If there are potential drug interactions, or simvastatin 40 mg is contraindicated, a lower dose or alternative preparation such as pravastatin may be chosen. Secondary prevention of CVD †¢For secondary prevention, lipid modification therapy should be offered and should not be delayed by management of modifiable risk factors. Blood tests and clinical assessment should be performed, and comorbidities and secondary causes of dyslipidaemia should be treated. Assessment should include: osmoking status oalcohol consumption oblood pressure (see ‘Hypertension’, NICE clinical guideline 34) obody mass index or other measure of obesity (see ‘Obesity’, NICE clinical guideline 43) ofasting total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol and triglycerides (if fasting levels are not already available) ofasting blood glucose orenal function oliver function (transaminases) othyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) if dyslipidaemia is present. Statin therapy is recommended for adults with clinical evidence of CVD †¢People with acute coronary syndrome should be treated with a higher intensity statin. Any decision to offer a higher intensity statin should take into account the patient’s informed preference, comorbidities, multiple drug therapy, and the benefits and risks of treatment †¢Treatment for the secondary prevention of CVD should be initiated with simvastatin 40 mg. If there are potential drug interactions , or simvastatin 40 mg is contraindicated, a lower dose or alternative preparation such as pravastatin ay be chosen †¢In people taking statins for secondary prevention, consider increasing to simvastatin 80 mg or a drug of similar efficacy and acquisition cost if a total cholesterol of less than 4 mmol/litre or an LDL cholesterol of less than 2 mmol/litre is not attained. Any decision to offer a higher intensity statin should take into account informed preference, comorbidities, multiple drug therapy, and the benefit and risks of treatment http://www. eguidelines. co. uk/eguidelinesmain/guidelines/summaries/cardiovascular/nice_lipid_modification. php How to lower the risk of cardiovascular disease The risk of cardiovascular disease is possible to reduce following recommendation for lifestyle changing: Cessation of smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Nutrition should ensure a healthy diet wiht total diet no more than 8% of saturated + trans fatty acids of total energy intake. All people, especially ones with high risk factors should lower alcohol consumption As the prevention physical activities are recommended – at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity per day or three days week (i. . 150 mins/week minimum). Cessation of smoking The aim of this measure is complete cessation of smoking and avoidance of second-hand smoke. Patient and their families need to stop smoking. Those who are unable to quit may need professional help in form of counselling, behavioral therapy and even pharmacological therapy. Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) is the first line choice of medication. Nutrition The aim of thi s measure is to ensure a healthy diet. Total diet should have no more than 8% (of total energy intake) of saturated + trans fatty acids. All patients are advised to take approximately 1g Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and more than 2g Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA) daily. Diet should have vegetables, fruits and legumes, grain-based foods, moderate amounts of lean meats, poultry, fish and reduced fat dairy products. EPA and DHA can be obtained from oily fish and marine n-3 (fish oil) capsule supplements. Alcohol consumption All patients should be advised to lower alcohol consumption. Men should drink no more than 2 standard drinks per day and women no more than 1 standard drink per day. Physical activity The aim of this measure is to raise physical activity and exercise to the recommended goal of at least 30 minutes of moderate intensity physical activity on most, if not all, days of the week (i. e. 150 mins/week minimum). Maintaining a healthy body weight The aim should be to achieve a waist measure of less than or equal to 94 cm in men and less than or equal to 80 cm in women. The body mass index (BMI) should be maintained at 18. 5–24. 9 kg/m2 Lowering blood cholesterol The aim of therapy should be to maintain blood cholesterol at: †¢Low density lipoprotein (LDL) at – less than 2. mmol/L †¢HDL – more than 1. 0 mmol/L †¢Triglyceride (TG) less than 1. 5 mmol/L The blood cholesterol can be maintained with the use of pharmacotherapy. Statins are commonly used lipid lowering drugs. Those with diabetes and atherosclerosis need stringent blood cholesterol control as well. Other lipid lowering drugs include fibrates like gemfibrosil, clofibrates etc, Eze timiber and niacin. Lowering blood pressure High blood pressure is one of the important risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Those with coronary heart disease, diabetes, kidney disease or stroke need tight blood pressure control. The aim should be a blood pressure of less than 130/80 mm of Hg. Diabetes and blood sugar control Those diagnosed with diabetes need stringent blood sugar control to prevent cardiovascular damage. HbA1c levels should be maintained at less than 7%. Other drugs to lower risk of cardiovascular disease Other drugs used to lower risk of cardiovascular diseases include: †¢Antiplatelet agents – this includes Aspirin and Clopidogrel. These drugs when given to patients with risk of heart attacks may prevent such attacks and events. †¢ACE inhibitors like Enalapril, Captopril, Lsinopril and Cardiovascular Diseases